Namgyel Wangchuk FOC

Introduction A network protocol is a set of guidelines that enable devices in a network to communicate with each other. It allows devices to communicate, even if the devices inside the network operate differently or look different. Network protocols make it easier for people to communicate with people all over the world. Network protocols are essential for modern digital communication. Network protocols simplify large processes by breaking them down into smaller, individual tasks. This is done at every network level. Each task must work together at every level to complete the larger task. When we say 'protocol suite', we mean a collection of smaller network protocols that work together. Application. The application layer is where end-user software, like web browsers and email, clients, operates. It offers protocols that let software send and get information and show useful data to users. Examples: HTTP (Hypertext Link Protocol) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) DNS (Domain Name Syst...

Network Models/ Protocol. A protocol is a collection of guidelines that controls how computers on a network communicate with one another. Includes rules governing the following attributes of a network: Access method Allowed Physical Topologies Types of Cabling Speed of Data Transfer Includes a number of layers, each of which completes a certain function. Also includes two popular models: OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model The ideas of layering serve as the foundation for both models. Layering A process when a task is broken down into smaller tasks and each smaller task is solved separately. Major advantages conclude: Code Reuse Engineering Facilities Modular Extensibility Standardizes Interfaces Simplifies Teaching and Learning Introduction to OSI Layered communications, computer network protocol and transmission design are described by the Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model). Divides the transportation of data into the following seven layers: ...

  Repeater: A repeater is a network hardware device that amplifies and regenerates signals as they pass through the network. They do not amplify signal. It's a 2-port device. Hub: A hub is a hardware device that relays communication data to all devices on a network. It does not filter the data packets based on the mac address. Types of Hubs Active Hub: A hub is a hardware device that relays communication data to all devices on a network. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes. Passive Hub: These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes. Intelligent Hub: These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Switches Switches...

 Network communication The lower-case b is commonly used to denote bits, while the uppercase B is used to denote bytes. K stands for 1024 i.e. 2^10 (2 power 10) k stands for 1000 i.e. 10^3 (10) 1kb/s 1000 bits per second 1KB/s 1024bytes per second   Download KBPS speed = (kbps value*1000/8)/1024 Components of networks  hardware components NIC is a piece of hardware, often a circuit board or chip, that is inserted on a computer to enable it to connect to a network. network medium is a cable that plugs into the NIC and makes the connection between the computer and the rest of the network. interconnecting device allows multiple devices to connect and communicate within the network Software components Network client and servers network clint software request stored information on another network device e.g., chrome network server software allows a computer to share its resources. e.g., web server protocols define the rules and formats a computer. NIC driver receiv...

  ASCII (American Standard code for information interchange) is a 7bit character code with values from 0 to 127.   Representing sound : sound needs to be converted into binary for the computer to be able to process it. sounds are usually captured by a microphone and then be converted into digital signals. Representing colors:   image is broken into individual pixels. e.g., red = (255,0,0) Representing numbers: numbers in a computer system is represented by a string of bits called binary numbers. Number system : computer use binary numbers (base 2) to represent numbers also called transistor (on & off) Decimal ( base 10) system: numbers from 0 to 9. e.g., 823= 8x10^2+2x10^1x5x10^0 binary ( base 2) system: numbers are 0 & 1. e.g., 1011=1x2^3+1x2^1+1= 11. octa ( base 8) system: numbers   are 0 t0 7 e.g., 23=2x8^1+3=19 Hexadecimal ( base 16) system: numbers from 0 to 9 and A to F. e.g., A12=10x16^2+1x16^1+2=2578 Number representation Unsigned. If N number...

Basic function of a computer The primary purpose of a computer is to process and manipulate data using hardware components like the CPU, memory, storage devices and input/output devices. It executes tasks based on instruction provided by software programs. Processing Components The Central processing unit (CPU). It receives instruction form computer programs, executes and manages data. Storage component Stores data, programs and information. This include hard disk drive (HDD) solid state drive(SSD) Two main storage :  1. short term storage(RAM/volatile/working space) More the RAM faster the system. 2. long term storage(non volatile ) Hard drives are the primary long term storage which contain moving parts(platters) stores data in the form of magnetic pulses. SSD (solid state drive) are often used these days due to its speed and reliability plus it has no moving parts. Computer Bus System Bus : a collection of wires carrying signals (data/ address) within a computer ensuring...